Gender-responsive evaluation for a sustainable future for all

With a persistent gender income gap, women have a higher risk than men of living in poverty, including energy poverty – which can be amplified by other socioeconomic aspects, including age, pre-existing health conditions or disabilities and care responsibilities.^[1] In the EU, 8 % of the general population cannot keep their house adequately warm. Non-EU migrants, both women (14 %) and men (15 %), are more likely to be unable to keep their homes adequately warm, followed by single mothers (13 %) and those with low educational attainment (12 % of women and 13 % of men). A gender gap exists among people aged over 65 years, with 8 % of women and 6 % of men in this group being unable to keep their homes adequately warm.^[2] Furthermore, available data show that in the EU, as many as 12 % of single mothers were in arrears on their utility bills in 2020, compared with 6 % of the general population.^[3]

Women are more likely than men to have limited options to invest in energy efficiency.^[4] A 2019 Eurobarometer survey on climate change^[5] confirms that men are more likely than women to undertake major energy investments that contribute to reducing household energy consumption, such as better insulating the home, purchasing energy-saving equipment and installing solar panels. Only a small share of Europeans undertook major investments. These options are not viable for everyone due to the high upfront investments required.

Thus, when designing a policy intervention to support the transition to more energy-efficient housing, pre-existing gender gaps in homeownership, access to green financing, and relevant green skills and knowledge, among others, must be considered to avoid perpetuating gender inequalities. For example, rather than providing reimbursements to compensate households after they have undertaken works to insulate a house, a more gender-responsive and socially fair approach could include targeted subsidies for lower-income households and single-parent households (primarily lone mothers) that would not require an upfront investment. If you are evaluating an intervention to promote energy-efficient housing, it is important to assess the extent to which it reached those most in need and determine whether or not it perpetuated gender gaps in access to finance.

Historically, the representation of women at United Nations climate change conferences (known as conferences of the Parties (COPs)) and climate discussions has generally been low, with women often being excluded from decision-making processes. Even though more Party delegates attended COP27 (2022), women accounted for only 35 % of all delegates, less than 5 percentage point improvement on COP26 (2011).^[6] Women’s participation also varies depending on the type of meeting and within decision-making structures. At COP27, only 20% of heads of delegation, the most senior negotiating position, were women, compared with 36 % at the intersessional negotiations held in Bonn that year. ^[7]

At the EU level, data from 2022 indicate that women account for 45 % of the EU delegations.^[8] While the EU-level figures might appear promising, the UNFCCC Secretariat found that women accounted for only 29 % of speaking time at COP 26.^[9] A lack of representation of women can significantly impact the development and implementation of effective and equitable climate policies and solutions.

Evidence shows that increasing women’s representation in national parliaments leads to the adoption of more stringent climate policies and increased transparency^[10]. However, in 2022, just 30 % of senior ministers responsible for environmental and climate change policies in the EU were women.^[11] Similarly, in 2022, women accounted for a third of the members of national parliamentary committees dealing with environment (34%) and climate (32 %).^[12] When it comes to climate discussions, including women means that their diverse perspectives, knowledge and experiences are heard, leading to complete and inclusive policy decisions. Women’s engagement in climate discussions facilitates the consideration of gender-specific impacts, resulting in adequate and/or effective solutions to climate change.

Gender-based social norms can significantly impact how people perceive and act towards climate action. The perceptions of women and men about tackling climate change are similar in that they both recognise the urgency and importance of addressing the issue. However, there are differences in how women and men approach and prioritise climate action.

A few studies have pointed out that women and men use energy differently as consumers of food and transport, resulting in different energy consumption values. For example, men’s energy inputs resulting from food consumption in Germany, Greece, Norway, and Sweden are 14-21 % higher than those of women because of higher meat intake.^[13]

Research suggests that women are more concerned about climate change than men and are more likely to support policies and initiatives to address it.^[14] They may also be more likely to engage in sustainable behaviours such as recycling, reducing energy consumption, and using sustainable modes of transportation, (e.g. public transport and walking).^[15] However, it should be noted that private cars remain the main transport mode across the EU, and men are more likely than women to use a car for their everyday travel.^[16]

Eurobarometer surveys have found that climate change is a growing concern among women and men in Europe, with 80 % of women and 76 % of men considering it a very serious problem. However, women are slightly more likely than men to take action to tackle climate change (66 % v 62%, respectively), and the types of action undertaken are also influenced by gender.^[17]

Evidence also suggests that men are more likely to prioritise economic considerations over environmental ones and may be less likely to prioritise climate action in political decision-making. One possible reason for this difference is gender-based social norms. Traditionally, men have been associated with activities that are seen as ‘masculine’ and involve dominating nature. In contrast, women have been associated with activities seen as ‘feminine’, which involve nurturing and caring for nature.^[18] Researchers have suggested an existing green-feminine stereotype, given that environmentalism and conservationism reflect caring and nurturing of the environment, which are prototypical ‘feminine’ trait.^[19]  Research has found that women display greater concern and willingness to take action to help the environment. At the same time, men feel less guilty about living a ‘non-green’ lifestyle and avoiding environmentally-friendly behaviours. Given the green-feminine stereotype, green behaviours would threaten men’s masculine identity.^[20]

When designing interventions that concern environmental issues, care must be taken to consider existing gender stereotypes, differing beliefs and gender-based social norms to ensure that the intervention is inclusive, effective and sustainable. Given that gender stereotypes and norms can influence people’s attitudes towards environmental issues, the evaluation of environmental policies should also reflect on how existing gender stereotypes may have contributed to their success or failure. In any case, it is essential to note that ‘feminine’ and ‘masculine’ traits are social constructs. Therefore, these gender attitudes to climate action and sustainable behaviours are not fixed or immutable and may vary across cultural and socioeconomic contexts within the EU and beyond^[21].

With the introduction of the European Green Deal, the EU has set out to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. Decarbonising the energy system benefits everyone, as it is closely linked to addressing climate change. However, decarbonisation efforts must address existing gender inequalities in use, decision-making and participation in the energy labour market and their potential gender impacts to ensure that it is a just and inclusive process. Available data on the EU energy labour force indicate that women represent 20 % of all workers in the conventional energy sectors.^[22] However, no sex-disaggregated data are available on the labour force in the renewable energy sector in the EU.^[23] In the renewable energy sector globally, women represent 32 % of full-time employees, based on a 2018 online survey by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).^[24]

When designing or evaluating a policy intervention that aims to promote, for instance, more efficient and flexible energy use at home through time-of-use pricing,^[25] we must account for the existing gendered division of household work. In other words, it requires that the assessment of potential impacts does not make any assumptions about who ultimately implements energy efficiency measures in homes. We need to question on whom the burden of time flexibility is placed. Otherwise, such measures might make it more difficult for women to reconcile their employment, unpaid care and household work. Without an assessment of potential gender impacts, this type of policy intervention to promote efficient energy use could increase the domestic workload of women, including the mental load associated with coordinating different household and care tasks.^[26] In doing so, it could ultimately reinforce existing structural gendered inequalities in responsibilities and the use of time.

Empirical data collected in a 2022 study of energy use in relation to household labour in households in Italy and the Netherlands suggest that women, who disproportionately carry the mental load in terms of household management, might be further challenged by the introduction of new demands, such as time-shifting certain practices for energy efficiency.^[27]

Safety concerns affect women’s choices with regard to the mode of travel, route and time.^[28] For instance, women are less likely to travel at night and tend to avoid poorly lit areas for fear of encountering sexual harassment and violence.^[29] Gender-related safety concerns, especially those relating to sexual harassment, are often overlooked in transport planning. Few data on women’s safety and incidents of sexual harassment on public transport are available at the EU level. Typical indicators of transport safety often focus on the number of traffic accidents, deaths, and injuries primarily involving cars. This leads to other incidents relating to safety and other forms of transport being overlooked.^[30]

The sustainable and smart mobility strategy^[31] and the new urban mobility framework^[32] are the key tools delivering the European Green Deal in the area of transport. In parallel, the 2020-2025 gender equality strategy recognises that green policies, including transport, do not have an equal impact on women and men and emphasises the need to address the dimension of gender in green policies to maximise the full potential of the European Green Deal.^[33]

However, only 22% of transport workers in the EU are women.^[34] Gender segregation in the transport sector is both horizontal and vertical, significantly limiting women’s opportunities in the labour market and contributing to the gender pay gap.^[35] Women are under-represented in all subsectors of transport.^[36] The largest gender gap is in land transport, where women represent only 15 % of workers. Women’s share is highest in air transport (42 %). Compared with other transport subsectors, the air transport sector includes more service, sales and clerical support roles, typically held by women, which explains the higher representation of women in the sector.^[37]

Barriers to women’s employment in the transport sector include the lack of support and opportunities for career advancement, hiring and retaining women employees and unattractive work conditions.^[38] Another obstacle is related to gender stereotypes and educational choices. Gender stereotyping in overwhelmingly men-dominated study fields can impact the self-selection of girls' and women’s paths away from transport careers.^[39]

Women are also under-represented in political decision-making in the transport sector. In 2022, just 25 % of the Member States’ government ministers (senior and junior) responsible for transport were women.^[40] Overall, efforts to address the persistent gender segregation in the transport sector and in decision-making remain limited at both the EU and national levels.^[41] Improved synergies between the gender equality and transport policies would result in the following benefits:

• increased uptake of sustainable transport with a gender-equal green transition in the transport sector,
• addressing gender disparities in access to transportation with, for example, enhanced timing, frequency and safety of public transport services responding to the needs of travellers in all their diversity,
• improved safety and security for women and girls, considering that safety concerns determine women‘s transport choices, which can limit their access to education, employment, and affect their caregiving responsibilities,
• reduced labour shortages and an expanded talent pool in the transport sector as a result of by supporting the participation of women in the sector.

[1] Simcock, N., Jenkins, K. E. H., Lacey-Barnacle, M., Martiskainen, M., Mattioli, G. and Hopkins, D. (2021), ‘Identifying double energy vulnerability: A systematic and narrative review of groups at-risk of energy and transport poverty in the global north’, Energy Research & Social Science Vol. 82 102351 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2021.102351).

[2] Authors’ calculations using microdata from EU statistics on income and living conditions (EU-SILC) (2020). EIGE (2023), Gender Equality Index 2023: Towards a green transition in transport and energy (https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/gender-equality-index-2023-towards-green-transition-transport-and-energy).

[3] EIGE’s calculations using microdata from EU-SILC (2020). EIGE (2023), Gender Equality Index 2023: Towards a green transition in transport and energy (https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/gender-equality-index-2023-towards-green-transition-transport-and-energy).

[4] Clancy, J., Daskalova, V., Feenstra, M., Franceschelli, N. and Sanz, M. (2017), Gender Perspective on Access to Energy in the EU, Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs (https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2017/596816/IPOL_STU(2017)596816_EN.pdf).

[5] Authors’ calculations using microdata from Eurobarometer 91.3 (2019) climate change. European Commission (2019), ‘Special Eurobarometer – Climate change’ (https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2212).

[6] UNFCCC Secretariat (2022), ‘Gender balance’ (https://unfccc.int/topics/gender/workstreams/gender-action-plan/gender-…); and Women’s Environment & Development Organization (WEDO) (2023), Who Decides: Women’s participation in the UN Climate Change Convention (https://wedo.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/WEDO_WomensParticipation_2023_EN.pdf).

[7] Women’s Environment & Development Organization (WEDO) (2023), Who Decides: Women’s participation in the UN Climate Change Convention (https://wedo.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/WEDO_WomensParticipation_2023_EN.pdf).

[8] EIGE (2022), ‘Indicator: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): EU and national delegations’ (https://eige.europa.eu/gender-statistics/dgs/indicator/wmidm_env_unfcc__wmid_env_unfcc_del).

[9] UNFCCC Secretariat (2022), ‘Gender balance’ (https://unfccc.int/topics/gender/workstreams/gender-action-plan/gender-balance).

[10] Mavisakalyan, A. and Tarverdi, Y. (2019), ‘Gender and climate change: Do female parliamentarians make difference?’, European Journal of Political Economy Vol. 56, pp. 151–164 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2018.08.001).

[11] EIGE (2022), ‘Indicator: National ministries dealing with environment and climate change: Ministers by seniority’ (https://eige.europa.eu/gender-statistics/dgs/indicator/wmidm_env_nat__wmid_env_natmin_envmin).

[12] EIGE (2023), ‘Gender balance in the European Green Deal’, statistical note, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.

[13] Räty, R. and Carlsson-Kanyama, A. (2010), ‘Energy consumption by gender in some European countries’, Energy Policy Vol. 38, No 1, pp. 646–649 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.08.010).

[14] Ramstetter, L. and Habersack, F. (2020), ‘Do women make a difference? Analysing environmental attitudes and actions of members of the European Parliament’, Environmental Politics Vol. 29, No 6, pp. 1063–1084 (https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2019.1609156).

[15] EIGE (2023), Gender Equality Index 2023: Towards a green transition in transport and energy (https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/gender-equality-index-2023-towards-green-transition-transport-and-energy).

[16] Authors’ calculations using microdata, Special Eurobarometer 92.1 (2019) mobility and transport in EIGE (2023), Gender Equality Index 2023: Towards a green transition in transport and energy (https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/gender-equality-index-2023-towards-green-transition-transport-and-energy).

[17] European Commission (2022), ‘Eurobarometer future of Europe 2021’ (https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2554); and European Commission (2022), ‘Eurobarometer fairness perceptions of the green transition’ (https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2672).

[18] Swim, J. K. and Geiger, N. (2018), ‘The gendered nature of stereotypes about climate change opinion groups’, Group Processes & Intergroup Relations Vol. 21, No 3, pp. 438–456 (https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430217747406).

[19] Brough, A. R., Wilkie, J. E. B., Ma, J., Isaac, M. S. and Gal, D. (2016), ‘Is eco-friendly unmanly? The green-feminine stereotype and its effect on sustainable consumption’, Journal of Consumer Research Vol 43, No 4, pp. 567–582 (https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucw044).

[20] Brough, A. R., Wilkie, J. E. B., Ma, J., Isaac, M. S. and Gal, D. (2016), ‘Is eco-friendly unmanly? The green-feminine stereotype and its effect on sustainable consumption’, Journal of Consumer Research Vol 43, No 4, pp. 567–582 (https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucw044).

[21] Punzo, G., Panarello, D., Pagliuca, M. M., Castellano, R. and Aprile, M. C. (2019), ‘Assessing the role of perceived values and felt responsibility on pro-environmental behaviours: A comparison across four EU countries’, Environmental Science & Policy Vol 101, pp. 311–322 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2019.09.006).

[22] Conventional energy technologies comprise the nuclear, oil, gas and coal industries.

[23] Renewable energy technologies include industries involved in hydro, wind, ocean, bioenergy, solar photo voltaic and concentrated solar power.

[24] IRENA (2019), Renewable Energy: A Gender Perspective (https://irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2019/Jan/IRENA_Gender_perspective_2019.pdf).

[25] Time-of-use pricing is an electric rate schedule that adjusts the price of electricity based on when it is used.

[26] Aggeli, A., Christensen, T. H. and Larsen, S. P. A. K. (2022), ‘The gendering of energy household labour’, Buildings and Cities 3, Vol. 3, No 1, pp. 709–724 (https://doi.org/10.5334/bc.224).

[27] Aggeli, A., Christensen, T. H. and Larsen, S. P. A. K. (2022), ‘The gendering of energy household labour’, Buildings and Cities 3, Vol. 3, No 1, pp. 709–724 (https://doi.org/10.5334/bc.224).

[28] EIGE (2017), Gender and Transport (https://eige.europa.eu/publications/gender-transport); Hortelano, A. O., Gross, M., Haq, G. and Tsakalidis, A. (2011), ‘Women in transport research and innovation: A European perspective’, Sustainability Vol. 13, No 12, p. 6796 (https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126796); International Transport Forum (2018), Women’s Safety and Security: A public transport priority, OECD Publishing, Paris (https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/womens-safety-security_0.pdf); and Afesojaye, O. E., Castillo, V. B. and Gómez, L. D. (2022), Gender Equality and Safe and Secure Mobility (https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5d417dafca99980001f34799/t/6229dd37c77957122eb99e6b/1646910881431/Policy+Brief%3A+Road+Safety+and+Gender+Equality).

[29] International Transport Forum (2018), Women’s Safety and Security: A public transport priority, OECD Publishing, Paris (https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/womens-safety-security_0.pdf).

[30] The fear of violence and crime encountered on and around public transport is a pivotal factor in the travel choices of LGBTIQ people. The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights’ 2019 LGBTI survey found that most incidents of physical or sexual attacks (51 %) take place in public–, with 10 % occurring on public transport. Source: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (2020), A Long Way to Go for LGBTI Equality (http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2020/eu-lgbti-survey-results).

[31] European Commission (2020), Commission communication – Sustainable and smart mobility strategy – Putting European transport on track for the future (COM(2020) 789 final) (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0789).

[32] European Commission (2020), Commission communication – The new EU urban mobility framework (COM(2021) 811 final) (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0811).

[33] European Commission (2020), Commission communication – A union of equality: Gender equality strategy 2020–2025 (COM(2020) 152 final) (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0152).

[34] Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport (2022), EU Transport in Figures: Statistical pocketbook 2022, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2832/216553).

[35] Giannelos, I., Smit, G., Gonzalez Martinez, A.-R., Perciaccante, F., Tanis, J., Vroonhof, P., Doll, C., Meija Dorantes, L. and Lakamp, R. (2019), Business case to increase female employment in transport: Final report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2832/93598); and EIGE (2023), Gender Equality Index 2023: Towards a green transition in transport and energy (https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/gender-equality-index-2023-towards-green-transition-transport-and-energy).

[36] EIGE (2023), Gender Equality Index 2023: Towards a green transition in transport and energy (https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/gender-equality-index-2023-towards-green-transition-transport-and-energy).

[37] EIGE (2023), Gender Equality Index 2023: Towards a green transition in transport and energy (https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/gender-equality-index-2023-towards-green-transition-transport-and-energy).

[38] Turnbull, P. (2013), Promoting the employment of women in the transport sector – Obstacles and policy options, International Labour Organization, Geneva; and Ng, W. S. and Acker, A. (2020), The Gender Dimension of the Transport Workforce, International Transport Forum Discussion Papers, OECD Publishing, Paris, (https://www.itf-oecd.org/gender-dimension-transport-workforce).

[39] EIGE (2023), Gender Equality Index 2023: Towards a green transition in transport and energy (https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/gender-equality-index-2023-towards-green-transition-transport-and-energy).

[40] EIGE (2022), ‘National government ministers dealing with transport: Ministers by seniority’ (https://eige.europa.eu/gender-statistics/dgs).

[41] EIGE (2023), Gender Equality Index 2023: Towards a green transition in transport and energy (https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/gender-equality-index-2023-towards-green-transition-transport-and-energy).